Lineage Trace

a person who flatters someone important to gain advantage

Greek sykophantes informer from sykon fig + phainein to show

a bad-tempered, difficult, cantankerous person

Origin uncertain, possibly from cur dog + mudgeon (unknown), first recorded in 1570s

a person who dislikes humankind and avoids society

Greek misanthrōpos from misos hatred + anthrōpos human

a person who seeks to promote the welfare of others through generous donations

Greek philanthrōpos from philos loving + anthrōpos human

a person who tends to turn inward mentally and prefers solitary activities

Latin intro inward + vertere to turn, coined by psychologist Carl Jung in 1910s

an outgoing, socially confident person who gains energy from being around others

Latin extra outside + vertere to turn, coined by Carl Jung as counterpart to introvert

a person with excessive interest in themselves and their appearance

Greek Narkissos, mythological youth who fell in love with his own reflection

a person who endures pain or hardship without showing feelings or complaining

Greek Stōïkos from stoa porch, where philosopher Zeno taught in Athens

a person who believes pleasure is the most important thing in life

Greek hēdonē pleasure + -ist

a person who believes life is meaningless and rejects moral principles

Latin nihil nothing + -ist, popularized by Turgenev in 1862

a person who believes people are motivated purely by self-interest

Greek kynikos dog-like from kyōn dog, from ancient Greek philosophical school

a person who is guided by ideals rather than practical considerations

Greek idea form, pattern + -ist, via French idéaliste

a person who deals with things sensibly and realistically

Greek pragma deed, act from prassein to do + -ist

a person who selflessly concerns themselves with the welfare of others

French altruisme from Latin alter other + -ist, coined by Auguste Comte in 1830s

a person who is excessively conceited or absorbed in themselves

Latin ego I + -ist, first used in English in 1700s

a person who is excessively concerned with minor details and rules

Italian pedante teacher, schoolmaster, possibly from Latin paedagogans teaching

a person who has or affects a special appreciation of art and beauty

Greek aisthētikos perceptive from aisthēta perceptible things

a person who attacks cherished beliefs or institutions

Greek eikōn image + klastes breaker, originally destroyers of religious images

a person of wide-ranging knowledge or learning

Greek polymathēs from poly much + manthanein to learn

a person who cultivates an interest without commitment or knowledge

Italian dilettante lover of the arts from dilettare to delight, from Latin delectare

a person who lives a solitary life and tends to avoid other people

Latin recludere to shut away from re- back + claudere to shut

a person who has a balance of extrovert and introvert features

Latin ambi both + vertere to turn, coined as blend of introvert and extrovert

a person falsely claiming to have special knowledge or skill; a fraud

Italian ciarlatano inhabitant of Cerreto, known for quacks, from ciarlare to chatter

a political leader who seeks support by appealing to popular desires and prejudices

Greek dēmagōgos from dēmos people + agōgos leading

a self-taught person

Greek autodidaktos from auto self + didaktos taught from didaskein to teach

a person highly skilled in music or another artistic pursuit

Italian virtuoso skilled, learned from Latin virtus excellence, virtue

a person with detailed knowledge in a specialized field

French savant learned person from savoir to know, from Latin sapere to be wise

an expert judge in matters of taste

French connoisseur expert, from connaître to know, from Latin cognoscere

an expert or connoisseur in a particular field

Yiddish meyvn one who understands from Hebrew mēbhīn understanding

an expert in a particular subject who is called upon to give opinions

Hindi pandit learned person from Sanskrit pandita learned

a person who excels in telling anecdotes and stories

French raconteur storyteller from raconter to relate, tell from re- + aconter to recount

a person who takes part in a dialogue or conversation

Latin interloqui to speak between from inter between + loqui to speak

a strict disciplinarian, especially in the military

Named after Jean Martinet, 17th-century French drill master known for strict discipline

a person who is new to a subject, skill, or belief

Greek neophytos newly planted from neos new + phytos planted from phyein to grow

a person who is guided and supported by an older, more experienced person

French protégé protected from protéger to protect, from Latin protegere

a young person with exceptional abilities or qualities

Latin prodigium prophetic sign, portent, monster from pro forth + -igium (from agere to drive)

a person who inspires or influences others in a particular field

Latin luminare lamp, light from lumen light

a teacher, especially a strict or pedantic one

Greek paidagōgos from pais child + agōgos leader, originally a slave who escorted children

a person who organizes and finances concerts, plays, or operas

Italian impresario manager from impresa undertaking, from imprendere to undertake

a person of humble origin who has gained wealth or position

French parvenu arrived from parvenir to arrive, from Latin pervenire to come to

an outcast; someone who is avoided by others

Tamil paraiyar hereditary drummers, name of a low caste in southern India

a person who is hostile or indifferent to culture and the arts

Hebrew Pelištī, ancient people hostile to Israelites, later used for uncultured person in German

an expert in science or technology who has power in politics or industry

Greek tekhnē art, craft + kratos power, rule, coined in early 1900s

a person who knows and is able to use several languages

Greek polyglōttos from poly many + glōtta tongue, language

tendency toward anxiety, depression, self-doubt, and other negative feelings

Greek neuron (nerve)

the personality trait of being careful, or vigilant, and wishing to do a task well

Latin conscientia (knowledge within oneself)

receptivity to new experience and ideas

Old English open

a personality trait manifesting as being kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, and considerate

Old French agreer (to please)

doubting your abilities and feeling like a fraud

Coined by psychologists Clance and Imes (1978)

orientation toward the internal private world of one's self and one's inner thoughts and feelings

Latin intro- (inward) + vertere (to turn)

excessive interest in or admiration of oneself and one's physical appearance

Greek Narkissos (mythical figure who fell in love with his reflection)

to speak or act in an evasive way; to lie or mislead

Latin praevaricari to walk crookedly from prae- before + varicare to straddle

to use ambiguous language to conceal the truth or avoid commitment

Late Latin aequivocatus from aequi- equal + vocare to call, meaning to call by the same name

to conceal one's true motives, feelings, or beliefs

Latin dissimulare from dis- completely + simulare to simulate, meaning to disguise or conceal

to invent or concoct something, typically with deceitful intent

Latin fabricatus from fabrica workshop, craft, meaning to construct or manufacture

not telling the truth; lying

Latin mendax lying, deceitful from mendum fault, defect

deceitful in speech or conduct; double-dealing

Latin duplicitas from duplex twofold from duo two + plicare to fold

not candid or sincere; giving a false appearance of frankness

Latin dis- not + ingenuus frank, honest, literally native, freeborn

deceitful and untrustworthy; treacherous

Latin perfidiosus from perfidia treachery from per- through + fides faith, meaning breaking faith

superficially plausible but actually wrong; misleading in appearance

Latin speciosus fair, beautiful from species appearance, meaning having a fair appearance

not genuine, authentic, or true; false or fake

Latin spurius illegitimate, false, possibly from Etruscan

based on a mistaken belief; containing a fallacy

Latin fallax deceitful from fallere to deceive

of doubtful authenticity; widely circulated but probably false

Greek apokryphos hidden, obscure from apo- away + kryptein to hide

the use of trickery to achieve a political, financial, or legal purpose

French chicaner to quibble, possibly from Middle Low German schikken to arrange

deceit used to achieve one's goal; a stratagem used to deceive

Latin subterfugere from subter beneath + fugere to flee, meaning to escape secretly

an unfounded rumor or story

French canard duck, from phrase vendre un canard à moitié to half-sell a duck, meaning to swindle

the use of clever but false arguments, especially to deceive

Greek sophistēs wise man, teacher from sophos wise, later acquiring negative connotation

the making of false and defamatory statements about someone

Latin calumnia false accusation, trickery from calvi to trick

the action of making false spoken statements damaging to a person's reputation

Old French esclandre from Latin scandalum stumbling block, offense from Greek skandalon

the offense of willfully telling an untruth after taking an oath

Latin perjurium from per- to ill effect + jurare to swear

a person who pretends to be someone else to deceive others

French imposteur from Late Latin impostor deceiver from imponere to impose upon

a thing that is not what it is purported to be

Origin uncertain, possibly dialectal English sham trick or related to shame

an outward appearance that is maintained to conceal a less pleasant reality

French façade from Italian facciata face from faccia from Latin facies face

rough and bad-mannered; coarse

Dutch boer farmer, peasant, implying rustic or unrefined behavior

rude in a mean-spirited and surly way

Old English ceorl peasant, common man, related to German Kerl fellow

lacking sensitivity, refinement, or intelligence

Latin crassus thick, dense, gross

annoyingly insensitive or slow to understand

Latin obtusus blunt, dull from ob- against + tundere to beat

offering nothing that is stimulating or challenging; bland

Latin vapidus flat, insipid, related to vapor steam

lacking flavor, vigor, or interest

Latin insipidus from in- not + sapidus savory from sapere to taste

having or showing a lack of thought or intelligence

Latin vacuus empty from vacare to be empty

silly and pointless

Latin fatuus foolish, silly, possibly related to fari to speak

silly; stupid; lacking sense or meaning

Latin inanis empty, void, worthless

extremely stupid or foolish

Latin asinus ass, donkey, meaning like a donkey, stupid

childishly silly and trivial

Latin puerilis from puer boy, child

naive, simplistic, and superficial; dull

Latin jejunus fasting, barren, dry, meaning empty of nourishment

lacking inspiration or excitement; dull

Latin pedester on foot from pes foot, meaning going on foot, prosaic

so lacking in originality as to be obvious and boring

French banal common to all, commonplace, from ban proclamation, jurisdiction

lacking originality or freshness; overused

Latin tritus worn out, commonplace from terere to rub, wear out

lacking significance through overuse; unoriginal

From hackney horse for hire, referring to something overused like a hired horse

apparently attractive but having no real value; flashy

Latin meretricius from meretrix prostitute from merere to earn, meaning superficially attractive

exaggeratedly and distastefully complimentary; oily

Latin oleaginus from olea olive tree, meaning oily, unctuous

making a show of being morally superior to others

Latin sanctimonia holiness, sanctity from sanctus holy, with pejorative sense added

behaving as though one thinks one is superior to others

Latin superciliosus from supercilium eyebrow, from super above + cilium eyelid, meaning haughty

expressing contempt or ridicule

Latin derisus from deridere to ridicule from de- down + ridere to laugh

feeling or expressing contempt or derision

Old French escarn mockery, possibly from Frankish *skern jest, derision

expressing feelings of gratitude or pleasure in an unrestrained way

Latin effusus from effundere to pour out from ex- out + fundere to pour

expressing praise and commendation

Latin laudatorius from laudare to praise from laus praise

complimentary or flattering to an excessive degree

Middle English fulsom from ful full + -som some, originally meaning abundant, copious

a public speech or text in praise of someone or something

Greek panēgyrikos from panēgyris public assembly from pan all + agyris assembly

a speech or piece of writing that praises someone highly

Latin encomium from Greek enkōmion eulogy from en in + kōmos revel, celebration

an award or privilege granted as a special honor

French accolade embrace from Italian accollare to embrace from Latin ad- to + collum neck

an expression of praise or approval

Latin plaudite applaud! imperative of plaudere to clap, applaud

formal or official praise

Latin commendatio from commendare to commit to ones care, recommend from com- with + mandare to entrust'

approval or praise

Latin approbatio from approbare to approve from ad- to + probare to test, prove

excessive admiration or praise

Latin adulatio from adulari to flatter, possibly from ad- to + *olere to smell sweetly

great respect; reverence

Latin veneratio from venerari to revere from venus love, charm

respect and admiration

Old French estimer from Latin aestimare to estimate, value, appraise

humble submission and respect

French déférence from déférer to defer from Latin deferre to carry away, refer from de- down + ferre to carry

special honor or respect shown publicly

Old French homage from Latin hominaticum from homo man, referring to feudal ceremony of vassalage

an act, statement, or gift intended to show gratitude or respect

Latin tributum tax, contribution from tribuere to assign, grant from tribus tribe

to praise highly in speech or writing

Greek eulogizein from eu well + logizesthai to speak from logos word, speech

to praise enthusiastically

Latin extollere to lift up, elevate from ex- out, up + tollere to raise

to praise highly, especially in a public context

Latin laudare to praise from laus praise, glory

to hold in very high regard; to praise highly

Latin exaltare from ex- out, upward + altus high

to describe or represent as admirable; to praise

Latin glorificare from gloria glory + facere to make

displaying exaggerated flattery or affection

Old English fagnian to rejoice, related to fægen glad, later meaning to show affection like a dog

to admire, revere, or love greatly or excessively

Greek eidōlon image, phantom from eidos form, referring to worship of idols

very common and of little value

American English idiom from early 20th century, referring to cheap items sold at ten cents per dozen

to make a bad situation worse

From Aesops fable The Bald Man and the Fly', translated from Latin injuriae qui addideris contumeliam

at the last possible moment

Biblical reference from Matthew 20:1-16, parable of laborers hired at the eleventh hour before sunset

returning to the starting point after a setback

Possibly from board games or BBC radio football commentary dividing the field into numbered squares

pursuing a mistaken or misguided course

American English from hunting dogs barking at base of wrong tree after prey escaped

to avoid getting to the point; speak evasively

From medieval hunting practice of beating bushes to flush out game birds

to take on more responsibility than you can handle

American English idiom from 1800s, literal reference to taking too large a bite of food

to endure a painful situation with courage

From practice of wounded soldiers biting on bullets during surgery without anesthesia

to initiate conversation in a social setting

From literal breaking of ice to allow ships passage, used figuratively since 1600s

to destroy relationships or opportunities permanently

From military tactic of burning bridges to prevent enemy pursuit or retreat

to work late into the night

From era before electricity when oil lamps were burned late at night for light

to make peace; end a conflict

Native American peace ceremony of literally burying weapons to signify end of hostilities

just barely; by a very narrow margin

Biblical phrase from Job 19:20 I am escaped with the skin of my teeth

a paradoxical situation with no escape due to contradictory rules

From Joseph Hellers 1961 novel Catch-22' describing paradoxical military regulation

to do something in the easiest or cheapest way

From literally cutting across corners instead of following a path, to save time or effort

to get to the point without wasting time

From silent film era, editing instruction to skip to exciting chase scene

one who argues against something for the sake of debate

Latin advocatus diaboli, official role in Catholic canonization to argue against sainthood

don't waste time worrying about things that can't be changed

English proverb documented since 1600s, referring to futility of lamenting irreversible accidents

an obvious problem that everyone ignores

From 1950s fable of elephant in living room that people politely ignore despite its obviousness

to become nervous and hesitate before doing something

Possibly from frozen feet preventing soldiers from fighting, or poker players with poor hands

to become uncontrolled or unmanageable

From falconry or horse riding, when bird or horse becomes uncontrollable

to describe exactly what is causing a situation

From carpentry, striking nail precisely on its head for effective result

in trouble or in a difficult situation

From discomfort of being in uncomfortably hot water, used figuratively since 1500s

to join others in doing something fashionable

From American circus wagons carrying bands, politicians encouraging supporters to jump on

remain cheerful in difficult circumstances

From physical posture of holding head high as sign of confidence and resilience

to accomplish two things with a single action

Ancient proverb, possibly from Ovid's story of Daedalus, achieving two goals with one effort

to reveal a secret accidentally

Possibly from fraudulent market practice of substituting cat for piglet in bag

to miss an opportunity

From literal missing of boat departure, losing opportunity for passage

in agreement; having the same understanding

From choir or orchestra members literally looking at same page of music

very rarely

From rare astronomical occurrence of second full moon in calendar month, appearing bluish

something very easy to do

Possibly from 1870s cakewalk competitions where cake was prize for easiest dance

to risk everything on a single venture

From Don Quixote and American proverb warning against risking everything in one place

raining very heavily

Origins debated; possibly from 17th century England when heavy rain washed dead animals through streets, or from thatched roofs where animals sheltered

to understand the hidden meaning

From cryptography practice of writing hidden messages between lines of visible text

to reveal secret information

Possibly from ancient Greek voting with beans, or American slang from early 1900s

to view something with skepticism

Latin cum grano salis, from Pliny's reference to antidote taken with grain of salt

it's your turn to take action

From tennis or similar court sports where player must return ball from their court

the final problem that makes a situation unbearable

From proverb the straw that broke the camels back', final burden causing collapse

to give up; admit defeat

From boxing, where trainer throws towel into ring to signal surrender

feeling ill or unwell

Nautical term for sailors going below deck due to seasickness from bad weather

uncertain; not yet decided

From literal image of something suspended in air, unsettled and without clear resolution

a good thing that seemed bad at first

From 18th century hymn by James Hervey about misfortunes that prove beneficial

a situation where you have the advantages of two different things

From philosophical concept of enjoying material and spiritual worlds simultaneously

a proposed explanation based on limited evidence as a starting point for investigation

Greek hypothesis foundation, supposition from hypo- under + thesis placing

based on observation or experience rather than theory or logic

Latin empiricus from Greek empeirikos experienced from empeiria experience

a typical example or pattern of something; a worldview underlying theories

Greek paradeigma pattern, example from paradeiknynai to show side by side

a statement accepted as true as the basis for argument or inference

Greek axioma what is thought fitting from axios worthy

a thing suggested or assumed as true as the basis for reasoning

Latin postulatum thing requested from postulare to demand, request

a general proposition proved by a chain of reasoning

Greek theorema speculation, proposition from theorein to look at, contemplate

something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected

Greek anomalia unevenness, irregularity from anomalos uneven from an- not + homalos even

a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction; an agent of change

Greek katalysis dissolution from katalyein to dissolve from kata- down + lyein to loosen

a measure of disorder or randomness in a system; gradual decline into disorder

German Entropie from Greek en- within + trope transformation, turning

the combination of ideas to form a theory; the production of chemical compounds

Greek synthesis a putting together from syntithenai to place together from syn- together + tithenai to place

the gradual absorption of ideas or knowledge; movement of molecules through a membrane

Greek osmos a push, impulse + -osis denoting a process or condition

a mutually beneficial relationship between different organisms or groups

Greek symbiosis living together from symbioun to live together from syn- together + bios life

a complete change in form or character

Greek metamorphosis transformation from metamorphoun to transform from meta- change + morphe form

the classification of things according to their characteristics

French taxonomie from Greek taxis arrangement + -nomia method, system

the system of names or terms used in a particular field

Latin nomenclatura calling of names from nomen name + calare to call

a category in biological classification ranking above species

Latin genus birth, race, kind from the root gen- to beget, produce

native and restricted to a certain place; regularly found among particular people

Greek endemos native from en- in + demos people, district

a disease prevalent over a whole country or the world

Greek pandemos pertaining to all people from pan- all + demos people

the cause or origin of a disease or condition

Greek aitiologia giving a reason from aitia cause + -logia study of

the likely course or outcome of a disease or situation

Greek prognosis foreknowledge from progignoskein to know beforehand from pro- before + gignoskein to know

a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

Greek pseudo- false + Latin scientia knowledge from scire to know

relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something

Medieval Latin quantitativus from Latin quantitas quantity from quantus how much

the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing

Greek rhetorike (techne) (art) of oratory from rhetor speaker from rhesis speech

a strong verbal or written attack on someone's opinions or beliefs

Greek polemikos warlike, hostile from polemos war

a forceful and bitter verbal attack against someone or something

Greek diatribe a wearing away, pastime from diatribein to wear away from dia- through + tribein to rub

a long, angry speech of criticism or accusation

French tirade long speech from Italian tirata volley from tirare to pull, draw

a lengthy and aggressive speech

Old French arenge public speech possibly from Italian aringa or Medieval Latin harenga assembly

insulting, abusive, or highly critical language

Latin invectivus attacking from invehere to carry in, attack from in- into + vehere to carry

an expression of sharp disapproval or criticism

Old French rebuchier to hack down, beat back from re- back + buchier to strike

the expression of formal disapproval

Latin censura judgment, assessment from censere to assess, judge

an expression of blame or disapproval

Old French reprove from reprover to reprove from Latin reprobare to disapprove from re- back + probare to test

a rebuke, especially an official one

French réprimande from Latin reprimenda things to be repressed from reprimere to check, restrain

an argument or evidence that contradicts or refutes something

Old French reboter to thrust back from re- back + boter to thrust

the action of proving a statement or theory wrong

Latin refutatio repelling, rebutting from refutare to repel, rebut from re- back + *futare to beat

heated disagreement; an assertion in an argument

Latin contentio straining, contest from contendere to stretch, strive from con- together + tendere to stretch

a confident and forceful statement of fact or belief

Latin assertio affirmation, claim from asserere to claim, maintain from ad- to + serere to join

a previous statement from which another is inferred

Medieval Latin praemissa proposition set before from Latin praemittere to send before from prae- before + mittere to send

a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two premises

Greek syllogismos reasoning from syllogizesthai to infer from syn- together + logizesthai to reason

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning

Latin inferentia from inferre to bring in, deduce from in- in + ferre to carry

the process of reaching a conclusion by reasoning from general principles

Latin deductio a leading down from deducere to lead down from de- down + ducere to lead

the process of reaching a general conclusion from specific observations

Latin inductio a leading in from inducere to lead in from in- into + ducere to lead

a proposition that follows from one already proved

Latin corollarium money paid for a garland, gratuity from corolla little garland diminutive of corona crown

the characteristic spirit of a culture, era, or community

Greek ethos nature, disposition, character, custom

the principle of reason and judgment

Greek logos word, speech, reason from legein to say, speak

the theory of knowledge, especially regarding methods and validity

Greek episteme knowledge, understanding from epistanai to know, understand + -logia study of

the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being

Greek on (ont-) being from einai to be + -logia study of

the branch of philosophy dealing with first principles and the nature of reality

Greek meta ta physika after the physics from meta after, beyond + physika natural things

the art of investigating truths through discussion and logical argument

Greek dialektike (techne) (art of) debate from dialegesthai to converse from dia- through + legein to speak

a method enabling discovery or problem-solving through practical experience

Greek heuriskein to find, discover related to heureka I have found it

the defining spirit or mood of a particular period of history

German Zeitgeist from Zeit time + Geist spirit

a particular philosophy or view of life; a worldview

German Weltanschauung from Welt world + Anschauung perception, view

relating to knowledge that is independent of experience

Latin a priori from what comes before from a from + priori ablative of prior former

relating to knowledge derived from observation or experience

Latin a posteriori from what comes after from a from + posteriori ablative of posterior coming after

a statement that is true by necessity; needless repetition of an idea

Greek tautologia repetition of what has been said from tauto the same + -logia saying

a seemingly absurd statement that may actually be true

Greek paradoxon contrary to expectation from para- contrary to + doxa opinion

a division into two mutually exclusive or contradictory groups

Greek dichotomia a cutting in two from dicha in two, asunder + -tomia a cutting

a person or thing that is the direct opposite of something

Greek antithesis opposition from antitithenai to set against from anti- against + tithenai to place

the combination of ideas to form a coherent whole

Greek synthesis a putting together from syntithenai to place together from syn- together + tithenai to place

the explanation of phenomena by the purpose they serve

Greek telos end, purpose + -logia study of

the doctrine that all events are determined by prior causes

French déterminisme from Latin determinare to limit, determine from de- completely + terminare to bound

the view that only one's own mind is sure to exist

Latin solus alone + ipse self + -ism

a philosophy emphasizing individual existence and freedom of choice

Latin existentia existence from existere to emerge, exist from ex- out + sistere to stand

the doctrine that actions are right if they benefit the majority

Latin utilitas usefulness from utilis useful from uti to use + -ism

the doctrine that knowledge and truth exist only in relation to culture or society

Latin relativus having reference to from relatus past participle of referre to carry back + -ism

a belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge

Latin rationalis of reason from ratio reckoning, reason from reri to reckon + -ism

the practice of forming or pursuing ideals, especially unrealistically

Greek idea form, pattern from idein to see + Latin -alis suffix + -ism

a story with a hidden meaning, typically moral or political

Greek allegoria figurative language from allos other + agoreuein to speak in public

the repetition of initial consonant sounds

Latin ad- to + littera letter + -ation

an indirect reference to something outside the text

Latin allusio a playing with from alludere to play with from ad- to + ludere to play

something placed in the wrong historical period

Greek anachronismos reference to wrong time from ana- against + chronos time

repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses

Greek anaphora a carrying back from anapherein to carry back from ana- back + pherein to bear

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases

Greek antithesis opposition from antitithenai to set against from anti- against + tithenai to place

a concise statement expressing a general truth

Greek aphorismos definition from aphorizein to define from apo- from + horizein to bound

a universal symbol or character type recurring across cultures

Greek arkhetypon original pattern from arkhe- primitive + typos model

emotional release or purification through art

Greek katharsis purification, cleansing from kathairein to purify from katharos pure

the final resolution of a plot

French dénouement untying from dénouer to untie from des- un- + nouer to tie

the choice and use of words in speech or writing

Latin dictio a saying, word from dicere to say, speak

a mournful poem lamenting the dead

Greek elegeia mournful poem from elegos mournful song

a sudden realization or insight

Greek epiphaneia manifestation, appearance from epiphainein to reveal from epi- upon + phainein to show

a mild expression substituted for a harsh one

Greek euphemismos from euphemizein to use favorable words from eu- good + pheme speech

hints about future events in a narrative

English fore before + shadow from Old English sceadwian to shade, protect

excessive pride leading to downfall

Greek hybris excessive pride, wanton violence

deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or effect

Greek hyperbole excess, exaggeration from hyper- beyond + bole a throw

expression of meaning through opposite words or outcomes

Greek eironeia feigned ignorance from eiron dissembler

placing two elements close together for contrasting effect

Latin juxta near + French position position from Latin positio a placing

a recurring theme or element throughout a work

German Leitmotiv from leiten to lead + Motiv motive

understatement by denying the opposite

Greek litotes plainness, simplicity from litos plain, simple

mistaken use of a word for a similar-sounding one

French mal à propos ill-suited from the character Mrs. Malaprop in Sheridan's The Rivals (1775)

a direct comparison between two unlike things

Greek metaphora a transfer from metapherein to transfer from meta- over + pherein to carry

substituting the name of an attribute for the thing itself

Greek metonymia change of name from meta- change + onyma name

a recurring element that has symbolic significance

French motif motive, theme from Latin motivus moving from movere to move

a combination of contradictory terms

Greek oxymoros pointedly foolish from oxys sharp + moros foolish

an imitation for comic effect or ridicule

Greek parodia burlesque song from para- beside, mock- + oide song

a quality that evokes pity or sadness

Greek pathos suffering, emotion from paschein to suffer

attributing human qualities to non-human things

Latin persona person, character + facere to make + -ation

ordinary written language, as opposed to poetry

Latin prosa straightforward discourse from prorsus straightforward from pro- forward + versus turned

the main character in a story

Greek protagonistes chief actor from protos first + agonistes actor, combatant

the use of humor or irony to criticize or expose

Latin satira poetic medley later influenced by Greek satyros satyr

a comparison using 'like' or 'as'

Latin similis like, resembling

a speech revealing a character's thoughts to the audience

Latin soliloquium from solus alone + loqui to speak

using a part to represent the whole or vice versa

Greek synekdoche simultaneous understanding from syn- together + ekdechesthai to interpret

the arrangement of words and phrases in sentences

Greek syntaxis arrangement from syntassein to arrange from syn- together + tassein to arrange

a common or overused theme or device

Greek tropos turn, way, manner from trepein to turn

the appearance of being true or real

Latin verisimilitudo from veri of truth + similis like + -tudo noun suffix

the spirit or mood of a particular period

German Zeitgeist from Zeit time + Geist spirit

a person who actively opposes or is hostile to someone or something

Greek antagonistes opponent, rival from anti- against + agonistes combatant from agon contest

a phrase, quotation, or poem at the beginning of a document or component

Greek epigraphe inscription from epi- upon + graphein to write

attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself

Latin ad hominem to the person

using an authority figure's opinion as evidence when they lack relevant expertise

Latin appellare to address, call upon + auctoritas authority from auctor originator

using emotional manipulation instead of logical arguments

Latin appellare to address, call upon + emotio a moving, stirring from emovere to move out

arguing something is good because it's 'natural'

Latin appellare to address + natura nature from natus born

arguing something is true because many people believe it

American English from band musical group + wagon, referring to circus wagons carrying bands in parades

assuming the conclusion in the premise; circular reasoning

Translation of Latin petitio principii assuming the initial point from petere to seek + principium beginning

shifting the responsibility to disprove a claim rather than prove it

Old French burden load + Latin proba proof from probare to test, prove

selecting only evidence that supports your position while ignoring contradictory data

English cherry from Old French cerise + picking from Old English pician to pick, referring to selecting only the best cherries

using the conclusion as a premise in the argument

Latin circularis circular from circulus circle + reasoning from Old French raisoner to discuss

assuming that because two things correlate, one causes the other

Latin correlatio mutual relation from cor- together + relatio vs. causatio causation from causa cause

using a word with multiple meanings to mislead

Latin aequivocus of equal voice, ambiguous from aequi- equal + vox voice

presenting only two options when more exist

Latin falsus false + Greek dichotomia a cutting in two from dicha in two + -tomia cutting

treating two different things as if they were the same

Latin falsus false + aequivalentia equal worth from aequi- equal + valere to be worth

believing past random events affect future probabilities

Middle English gambler to play games + Latin fallacia deception from fallax deceitful

judging something based on its origin rather than its current meaning

Greek genetikos of origin from genesis origin + Latin fallacia deception

drawing broad conclusions from limited examples

Old French haste haste + Latin generalizare to make general from genus kind, race

a question containing an unjustified assumption

Old English hladan to load + Latin quaestio a seeking, question from quaerere to seek

changing the criteria for proof after evidence is presented

English moving from Old English movan + goal from Middle English gol boundary + post from Latin postis pillar

dismissing counterexamples by redefining the group

English phrase coined by philosopher Antony Flew (1975) from a hypothetical example involving Scottish nationality

introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention

English red + herring, from the practice of using smoked herring to train hunting dogs or distract them from a scent

arguing that one event will inevitably lead to extreme consequences

English slippery from Old English slipor slippery + slope from Middle English slope inclined surface

misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack

English straw from Old English streaw + man, referring to a dummy or effigy made of straw used for practice fighting

continuing something because of previously invested resources

English sunk from Old English sunken submerged + cost from Latin constare to stand firm + fallacy

deflecting criticism by pointing to the critic's similar behavior

Latin tu quoque you also, you too

responding to criticism by pointing to others' faults

English what about + -ism, popularized during the Cold War to describe Soviet propaganda technique

arguing that something is valid because it has always been done that way

Latin appellare to address + traditio handing over, delivery from tradere to hand over

arguing that a conclusion must be true because it has not been proven false

Latin appellare to address + ignorantia lack of knowledge from ignorare not to know

a form of reasoning with two premises leading to a conclusion

Greek syllogismos (reckoning together), from syn- (together) + logizesthai (to reason)

an argument where one premise is implied rather than stated

Greek enthymema (consideration), from en- (in) + thymos (mind, spirit)

the art of investigating truth through discussion and reasoning

Greek dialektike (art of debate), from dialegesthai (to converse), from dia- (through) + legein (to speak)

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning

Latin inferentia, from inferre (bring in, carry in), from in- (in) + ferre (to carry)

reasoning from general principles to specific conclusions

Latin deductio (a leading down), from deducere (lead down), from de- (down) + ducere (to lead)

reasoning from specific instances to general principles

Latin inductio (a leading in), from inducere (lead in), from in- (in) + ducere (to lead)

inference to the best explanation

Latin abductio (a leading away), from abducere (lead away), from ab- (away) + ducere (to lead)

a thing suggested as a basis for reasoning

Latin postulatum (a demand, request), from postulare (to demand), from poscere (to ask urgently)

a statement regarded as self-evidently true

Greek axioma (that which is thought worthy), from axios (worthy)

a proposition proved by reasoning from accepted truths

Greek theorema (a sight, speculation), from theorein (to look at, observe), from theoros (spectator)

a strong verbal or written attack on someone or something

Greek polemikos (warlike, hostile), from polemos (war)

the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing

Greek rhetorike (art of an orator), from rhetor (orator, teacher), from eirein (to speak, say)

fluent or persuasive speaking or writing

Latin eloquentia (eloquence), from eloqui (to speak out), from e- (out) + loqui (to speak)

the art or practice of formal public speaking

Latin oratorius (of speaking), from orare (to speak, pray), from os (mouth)

a strongly encouraging or urging communication

Latin exhortatio, from exhortari (to encourage), from ex- (thoroughly) + hortari (to urge)

insulting or abusive language

Latin invectivus (abusive), from invehi (to attack with words), from in- (against) + vehere (to carry)

a forceful and bitter verbal attack

Greek diatribe (a wearing away, discourse), from diatribein (to wear away time), from dia- (through) + tribein (to rub)

a lengthy, aggressive speech

Old French arenge (public speech), from Italian aringa, possibly from Germanic hring (circle, assembly)

a long, angry speech of criticism

French tirade (a volley, long speech), from Italian tirata (a pulling), from tirare (to pull, draw)

the concluding part of a speech; a lengthy oration

Latin peroratio, from perorare (to speak at length), from per- (through, thoroughly) + orare (to speak)

a proposition forming the basis of an argument

Latin praemissa (things mentioned before), from praemittere (to send before), from prae- (before) + mittere (to send)

a statement put forward as a premise to be proved

Greek thesis (a proposition, statement), from tithenai (to place, put)

a proposition contrasting with the original thesis

Greek antithesis (opposition), from antitithenai (to set against), from anti- (against) + tithenai (to place)

the combining of thesis and antithesis into a new proposition

Greek synthesis (a putting together), from syntithenai (to put together), from syn- (together) + tithenai (to place)

clear, logical, and convincing

Latin cogent- (compelling), from cogere (to drive together, compel), from co- (together) + agere (to drive)

evoking interest or attention in an irresistible way

Latin compellere (to drive together, force), from com- (together) + pellere (to drive)

able to be maintained or defended against attack

French tenable, from tenir (to hold), from Latin tenere (to hold)

impossible to deny or disprove

Late Latin irrefutabilis, from in- (not) + refutare (to refute, repel), from re- (back) + root of fundere (to pour)

causing or likely to cause disagreement

Latin contentiosus (obstinate, quarrelsome), from contentio (striving, contest), from contendere (to strive), from com- (with) + tendere (to stretch)

a pithy observation containing a general truth

Greek aphorismos (definition, pithy sentence), from aphorizein (to define), from apo- (from) + horizein (to bound)

a short statement expressing a general truth

Latin maxima (greatest), short for maxima propositio (greatest proposition), feminine of maximus (greatest)

a formal pronouncement from an authoritative source

Latin dictum (something said, a saying), from dicere (to say, speak)

the quality of being exact and clear in description or reference

Latin specificus of a particular kind (from species kind + facere make)

exactness and accuracy of expression or detail

Latin praecisio a cutting off (from praecidere to cut short)

the quality of being coherent and intelligible

Latin claritas brightness, clearness (from clarus clear, bright)

the quality of being exact; precision

French exactitude (from Latin exactus precise, accurate)

the quality of stating something clearly with no room for confusion

Latin explicitus unfolded, set forth (from explicare to unfold)

clarity of expression; easy to understand

Latin lucidus light, bright, clear (from lucere to shine)

not open to more than one interpretation

Latin prefix un- not + ambiguus doubtful (from ambigere to wander)

leaving no doubt; clear and definite

Latin prefix un- not + aequivocus ambiguous (from aequus equal + vox voice)

clearly expressed and easily understood; lucid

Latin perspicuus transparent, clear (from perspicere to see through)

easily understood; clear in meaning or style

Latin pellucidus transparent (from per through + lucere to shine)

having or showing the ability to speak fluently and coherently

Latin articulatus jointed, distinct (from articulus joint, small part)

clear, logical, and convincing

Latin cogent- compelling (from cogere to compel, drive together)

intelligently analytical and clear-thinking

Latin incisus cut into (from incidere to cut into)

vigorous or incisive in expression or style

Old French trenchant cutting (from trencher to cut)

to make or become definite and clear

Greek krystallos ice, crystal + -ize (metaphorical extension of crystal formation)

the extent of the area or subject matter that something deals with

Greek skopos target, aim (from skeptesthai to look)

a limitation or restriction on what can be done

Old French constraindre to constrain (from Latin constringere to bind together)

a limit or boundary that defines the scope of something

Greek para beside + metron measure

a line that marks the limits of an area; a dividing line

Old French bodne boundary (from Medieval Latin bodina)

a restriction or constraint; a shortcoming

Latin limitatio a bounding (from limes boundary, limit)

the area covered or the degree to which something applies

Latin extentus stretched out (from extendere to extend)

the scope of the influence or concerns of something

Anglo-Norman purveu foreseen, provided (from Latin providere to foresee)

the scope, extent, or bounds of something

Latin ambitus circuit, going around (from ambire to go around)

to restrict or limit within boundaries

Latin circumscribere to draw a line around (from circum around + scribere to write)

to determine the limits or boundaries of

Latin de- completely + limitare to bound (from limes boundary)

to set the boundaries or limits of

Spanish demarcar (from de- completely + marcar to mark)

to keep or restrict within certain limits

Latin confinis bordering (from con- together + finis boundary)

the point at which something begins or changes

Old English þrescold doorway, entrance (origin uncertain, possibly related to thresh)

having limits or bounds; not infinite

Latin finitus limited, bounded (from finire to finish, limit)

limited or restricted in extent or scope

Old French bonde boundary + English -ed suffix

a specified sphere of activity or knowledge

French domaine (from Latin dominium property, ownership from dominus lord)

the official power to make decisions; sphere of authority

Latin jurisdictio administration of justice (from jus law + dictio saying)

the task or area of activity officially assigned

Latin remittere to send back, relax (from re- back + mittere to send)

to mention or list items one by one

Latin enumerare to count out (from e- out + numerare to number)

to describe or portray something precisely; outline

Latin delineare to sketch out (from de- completely + lineare to draw lines)

to place into groups based on shared characteristics

Greek kategoria accusation, category (from kata down + agoreuein to speak publicly)

to arrange items in order of importance

Latin prior former, superior + -ize suffix

to arrange in a particular order

Late Latin sequentia following (from sequi to follow)

a system in which items are ranked according to levels

Greek hierarchia rule of a high priest (from hieros sacred + archein to rule)

a scheme of classification; a systematic arrangement

Greek taxis arrangement + -nomia method (from nomos law)

a basic structure underlying a system or concept

English frame (from Old English framian to be useful) + work

a structured framework or plan; an outline

Greek skhēma form, figure, shape (from ekhein to have, hold)

a typical example or pattern of something; a model

Greek paradeigma pattern, example (from paradeiknynai to show side by side)

a system of methods used in a particular field

Greek methodos pursuit of knowledge (from meta after + hodos way) + -logy

done or acting according to a fixed plan or system

Greek systēmatikos combined (from systēma organized whole)

to arrange or classify into different levels or layers

Latin stratum something spread or laid down + -fy

to divide into parts or portions

Latin partitio division (from partire to divide)

to divide into separate parts or sections

Latin segmentum a strip cut off (from secare to cut)

designed with standardized units for flexibility

Latin modulus small measure (diminutive of modus measure) + -ar

characterized by fine detail; broken into small parts

Latin granulum small grain (diminutive of granum grain) + -ar

characterized by consideration of the whole rather than parts

Greek holos whole + -istic suffix

to remove uncertainty of meaning from; make clear

Latin dis- apart + ambiguus doubtful + -ate

to make something clear; explain

Late Latin elucidare to make clear (from e- out + lucidus clear)

to make a statement or situation less confused

Latin clarificare to make clear (from clarus clear + facere to make)

to analyze and develop an idea in detail

Latin explicare to unfold, explain (from ex- out + plicare to fold)

to help explain or make something clear

Latin illuminare to light up (from in- upon + lumen light)

to make something easier to understand

Latin de- removal + Greek mystikos mysterious + -fy

to present and explain a theory or idea in detail

Latin exponere to set forth (from ex- out + ponere to place)

to develop or present in detail

Latin elaborare to work out (from e- out + laborare to work)

to interpret or understand in a particular way

Latin construere to heap together, build (from con- together + struere to pile)

to analyze something in detail; break down into parts

Latin pars part (originally from grammatical analysis of sentence parts)

to analyze something by examining its components

English un- reverse action + pack (metaphorical extension)

to analyze by breaking down into components

Latin de- down + construere to build

to extract the essential meaning or most important aspects

Latin destillare to drip down (from de- down + stillare to drip)

to express the meaning using different words

Greek paraphrasis additional manner of expression (from para beside + phrasis speech)

to summarize and state again the main points

Latin recapitulare to go over the main points (from re- again + capitulum chapter)

to combine elements into a coherent whole

Greek synthesis a putting together (from syn together + tithenai to place)

to serve as an example of; illustrate

Latin exemplificare to illustrate (from exemplum example + facere to make)

to explain or make something clear by using examples

Latin illustrare to light up, make clear (from in- upon + lustrare to illuminate)

to provide evidence to support or prove the truth of

Latin substantia essence, substance + -ate

to confirm or give support to a statement or finding

Latin corroborare to strengthen (from cor- together + roborare to make strong)

to clearly show the existence or truth of something

Latin demonstrare to point out (from de- completely + monstrare to show)

to check or prove the validity or accuracy of

Latin validus strong, effective + -ate

to make sure or demonstrate that something is true

Latin verificare to make true (from verus true + facere to make)

to prove or show something to be true or genuine

Greek authentikos original, genuine (from authentes one who does things himself)

to quote or refer to as evidence or justification

Latin citare to summon, urge (from ciere to set in motion)

to mention or refer to something as support

Latin referre to carry back (from re- back + ferre to bear)

to represent as or provide a concrete example of

Latin instantia presence, urgency + -ate

to display or show clearly; evidence

Latin manifestus caught in the act, evident (from manus hand + -festus struck)

to reveal the presence of; indicate

Latin evincere to overcome, prove (from e- out + vincere to conquer)

to provide or serve as clear evidence of

Latin attestari to bear witness (from ad- to + testari to witness)

based on observation or experience rather than theory

Greek empeirikos experienced (from empeiria experience from en in + peira trial)

based on personal accounts rather than systematic study

Greek anekdota unpublished items (from an- not + ekdotos published)

to specify as a condition or requirement

Latin stipulari to bargain, demand (possibly from stips small coin)

something required as a prior condition

Latin prae before + requisitus required (from requirere to seek)

dependent on something else; conditional

Latin contingere to touch, happen (from con- together + tangere to touch)

subject to one or more conditions being met

Latin condicio agreement, condition + -al

a condition attached to an agreement

Latin proviso quod it being provided that (from providere to foresee)

a warning or qualification; a condition

Latin caveat let him beware (from cavere to beware)

a condition that must be met; a modification

Latin qualis of what kind + facere to make + -ation

a principle or standard by which something is judged

Greek kriterion means of judging (from krites judge from krinein to decide)

something that is necessary or required

Latin requisitus sought after (from requirere to seek, require)

absolutely necessary or required; vital

Latin imperativus specially ordered (from imperare to command)

required by law or rules; compulsory

Latin mandatum command (from mandare to order) + -ory

available for use at one's own judgment

Latin discretio separation, discernment (from discernere to separate) + -ary

available to be chosen but not required

Latin optio choice (from optare to choose) + -al

providing necessary support; supplementary

Latin ancillaris relating to maidservants (from ancilla maidservant)

to base something on; require as a precondition

Latin praedicare to proclaim (from prae before + dicare to make known)

to involve something as a necessary consequence

Old French entailler to cut, carve (from en- in + tailler to cut)

to place side by side for comparison or contrast

French juxtaposer (from Latin juxta near + French poser to place)

to recognize or identify what makes things different

Latin differentia difference (from differre to carry apart) + -ate

to recognize or treat as different

Latin distinguere to separate (from dis- apart + stinguere to prick)

to compare in a way that shows differences

Latin contra against + stare to stand

comparable in certain respects; similar

Greek analogos proportionate (from ana according to + logos ratio)

similar or corresponding; equivalent

Greek parallelos beside one another (from para beside + allelon one another)

equal in value, function, or meaning

Latin aequivalere to be equal in value (from aequus equal + valere to be worth)

corresponding in size or degree; proportionate

Latin commensuratus measured together (from com- with + mensurare to measure)

essentially different; distinct in kind

Latin disparatus separated (from dis- apart + parare to prepare)

a division into two contrasting things or parts

Greek dikhotomia a cutting in two (from dikha in two + temnein to cut)

a subtle difference in meaning or expression

French nuance shade of color (from nuer to shade from nue cloud)

a lack of compatibility or similarity between things

Latin discrepantia difference (from discrepare to sound differently)

differing from a standard or from each other

Latin divergere to incline apart (from dis- apart + vergere to turn)

coming together from different directions

Latin convergere to incline together (from con- together + vergere to turn)

equivalent in value, significance, or effect

Anglo-Norman tant amunter to amount to as much (from Latin tantus so much)

in agreement or harmony

Latin congruere to come together, agree (from con- together + ruere to fall)

to break down into constituent parts

Latin de- down + componere to put together

to analyze in minute detail

Latin dissecare to cut up (from dis- apart + secare to cut)

to examine methodically by separating into parts

Greek analusis a breaking up (from ana up + luein to loosen)

to examine closely and thoroughly

Latin scrutari to search (from scruta trash, broken items)

to form an idea of the value or quality of

French évaluer (from é- out + value value)

to evaluate or estimate the nature or quality of

Latin assessare to sit beside as a judge (from ad- to + sedere to sit)

to identify the nature of a problem by examination

Greek diagnosis discernment (from dia apart + gignoskein to know)

to carry out a systematic inquiry or examination

Latin investigare to track, trace (from in- into + vestigare to track)

to explore or examine something closely

Latin probare to test, prove (from probus good)

to examine closely; question systematically

Latin interrogare to question (from inter between + rogare to ask)

to find out for certain; determine

Old French acertainer to make certain (from a- to + certain certain)

to arrive at a conclusion by reasoning

Latin deducere to lead down (from de- down + ducere to lead)

to conclude from evidence and reasoning

Latin inferre to bring in (from in- into + ferre to bear)

to extend trends or data beyond the known range

Latin extra outside + polire to polish (influenced by interpolate)

to estimate values between known data points

Latin interpolare to refurbish, alter (from inter between + polire to polish)

to establish a relationship or connection between

Latin cor- together + relatus brought back (from referre to refer)

to place within a particular context or background

Latin contextus joined together (from con- together + texere to weave) + -ize

to formulate or construct in a particular way

Old English framian to be useful, make progress (related to fram forward)

a particular attitude or way of viewing something

Latin perspicere to see through (from per through + specere to look)

a position giving a strategic advantage or view

Anglo-Norman vantage (from Old French avantage advantage)

a particular way of looking at or analyzing something

Latin lens lentil (from the shape of the optical device)

an attitude or position taken in evaluating things

German Standpunkt (from Stand position + Punkt point)

a person's basic attitude or inclination

Latin oriri to rise (from the practice of facing east) + -ation

a way of regarding something that colors perception

Greek prisma something sawed (from priein to saw)

to frame or express differently; reconsider

English re- again + frame

judgment based on facts rather than personal feelings

Latin objectum thing presented to the mind (from ob- toward + jacere to throw)

judgment based on personal feelings or opinions

Latin subjectus placed under (from sub under + jacere to throw)

prejudice or inclination that distorts judgment

French biais slant, slope (origin uncertain, possibly Greek epikarsios oblique)

equal treatment of all; lack of favoritism

Latin in- not + partialis partial (from pars part)

a person with an interest or concern in something

English stake a share or interest + holder

a proposition from which a conclusion is drawn

Latin praemissa things mentioned before (from prae before + mittere to send)

something accepted as true without proof

Latin assumere to take up (from ad- to + sumere to take)

to create or devise methodically

Latin formula small form, rule (diminutive of forma form) + -ate

to put forward for consideration

Latin proponere to put forth (from pro forward + ponere to place)

to suggest as worthy of acceptance

Latin re- intensive + commendare to commit, entrust

to publicly support or recommend

Latin advocare to summon for counsel (from ad- to + vocare to call)

to lay down as a rule or guide; recommend

Latin praescribere to write before (from prae before + scribere to write)

to plan or invent by careful thought

Old French deviser to divide, arrange (from Latin dividere to divide)

to produce or create

Latin generare to beget (from genus birth, kind)

to obtain or arrive at by reasoning

Latin derivare to draw off (from de- down + rivus stream)

to provide or deliver; represent in a particular form

Old French rendre to give back (from Latin reddere to give back)

the information produced by a process

English out + put (coined in the 19th century)

a thing able to be provided; a tangible result

Old French delivrer to set free + -able

able to be acted upon; practical

Latin actio a doing (from agere to do) + -able

capable of being carried out or performed

Latin executus carried out (from ex- out + sequi to follow) + -able

able to be put into effect or action

Latin implere to fill up (from in- in + plere to fill) + -able

to perform repeatedly; refine through repetition

Latin iterare to repeat (from iterum again)

to improve by making small changes

Latin re- again + finire to finish (via French raffiner)

allowing a free response rather than a yes/no

English open + end + -ed (descriptive compound)

requiring a specific, limited answer

English closed + end + -ed (descriptive compound)

tending to suggest the desired answer

Old English lædan to guide + -ing (verbal noun)

seeking to explore or examine deeply

Latin probare to test + -ing

asked for effect, not requiring an answer

Greek rhētorikē art of speaking (from rhētōr orator)

involving or based on a supposed scenario

Greek hypothetikos supposed (from hypo under + tithenai to place)

using questions to stimulate critical thinking

Greek Sōkratikos of Socrates (the philosopher who used this method)

designed to identify or determine something

Greek diagnōstikos able to distinguish (from dia apart + gignōskein to know)

intended to make something clearer

Latin clarus clear + -ify + -ing

continuing a line of inquiry from previous questions

English follow + up (compound noun)

relating to what has not happened but might have

Latin contra against + factum fact + -al

referring to itself or to the conventions of its type

Greek meta beyond, after (used as prefix)

containing an assumption that may not be true

English load + -ed (metaphorical extension of carrying a burden)

combining multiple questions into one

Latin componere to put together (from com- together + ponere to place)

relevant or applicable to the matter at hand

Latin pertinere to relate to (from per through + tenere to hold)

only slightly relevant; diverging from the main point

Latin tangere to touch + -ial (from geometry: touching at a single point)

a previous statement from which another is inferred

Latin praemissa things mentioned before (from prae before + mittere to send)

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence

Latin inferre to bring in (from in- into + ferre to bear)

the process of reasoning from general to specific

Latin deductio a leading down (from deducere to lead down)

the process of reasoning from specific to general

Latin inductio a leading in (from inducere to lead in)

inference to the best explanation

Latin abductio a leading away (from abducere to lead away)

a form of reasoning with two premises and a conclusion

Greek syllogismos reasoning together (from syn together + logizesthai to reason)

a proposition that follows from one already proven

Latin corollarium money for a garland, gratuity (from corolla small garland)

a statement regarded as self-evidently true

Greek axiōma what is thought worthy (from axios worthy)

a thing suggested or assumed as true as a basis

Latin postulare to demand, request (from poscere to ask)

a mistaken belief based on unsound reasoning

Latin fallacia deception (from fallere to deceive)

a conclusion that doesn't logically follow

Latin non sequitur it does not follow (from non not + sequi to follow)

a statement that is true by necessity; circular reasoning

Greek tautologia repetition of what has been said (from tauto the same + -logia saying)

a practical method for problem-solving

Greek heuriskein to find, discover (related to eureka)

a process or set of rules for calculations

Arabic al-Khwarizmi (from the name of mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi)

a set of reasons justifying a course of action

Latin rationalis of reason (from ratio reason, calculation)

the relationship between cause and effect

Latin causatio excuse, pretext (from causa cause)

fond of company; sociable

Latin gregarius from grex (flock, herd)

friendly, good-natured, and easy to talk to

Latin affabilis from affari (to speak to), from ad- (to) + fari (speak)

friendly, lively, and enjoyable; fond of feasting

Latin convivialis from convivium (feast), from con- (together) + vivere (to live)

having a friendly and pleasant manner

Old French amiable from Latin amicabilis from amicus (friend)

reserved or uncommunicative; saying little

Latin taciturnus from tacitus (silent), from tacere (to be silent)

not revealing one's thoughts or feelings readily

Latin reticent- from reticere (remain silent), from re- (intensive) + tacere (be silent)

using very few words; brief and concise

Greek Lakōnikos (Spartan), referring to the terse speech of Spartans from Laconia

tending to talk a great deal; talkative

Latin loquax from loqui (to speak)

excessively talkative, especially on trivial matters

Latin garrulus from garrire (to chatter, prattle)

speaking fluently and at length

Latin volubilis (rolling, revolving) from volvere (to roll)

excessively compliant or deferential

Latin obsequiosus from obsequium (compliance), from obsequi (to comply)

excessively willing to serve or please others

Latin servilis from servus (slave)

eager or quick to argue or fight; aggressively defiant

Latin truculentus from trux (fierce, savage)

demonstrating aggression and willingness to fight

Latin bellicosus from bellicus (warlike), from bellum (war)

eager or quick to argue, quarrel, or fight

Latin pugnax from pugnare (to fight), from pugnus (fist)

causing or likely to cause disagreement or argument

Latin contentiosus from contendere (to contend), from con- (with) + tendere (to stretch)

skilled in dealing with sensitive matters tactfully

French diplomatique from diplôme (official document), from Greek diploma (folded paper)

generous or forgiving, especially toward a rival

Latin magnanimus from magnus (great) + animus (soul, spirit)

well-meaning and kindly; charitable

Latin benevolent- from bene (well) + velle (to wish)

having or showing a wish to do evil to others

Latin malevolent- from male (ill) + velle (to wish)

lacking good manners, refinement, or grace

Old English uncūth (unknown, unfamiliar), from un- (not) + cūth (known)

elegant and cultured in appearance, manner, or taste

French raffiner from re- (again) + Old French affiner (to purify), from fin (fine)

having or showing high moral standards

Latin virtuosus from virtus (worth, courage, virtue), from vir (man)

morally right or justifiable

Old English rihtwīs from riht (right) + wīs (manner, way)

diligent, thorough, and attentive to accuracy and ethics

Latin scrupulosus from scrupulus (small sharp stone, anxiety), diminutive of scrupus (sharp stone)

wishing to do what is right; thorough and careful

French consciencieux from Latin conscientia (knowledge, awareness), from conscire (be aware)

acting in accordance with morality; based on principles

Latin principium (beginning, foundation), from princeps (first, chief)

not conforming to accepted standards of morality

Latin im- (not) + moralis from mos (custom, manner)

lacking a moral sense; unconcerned with right or wrong

Greek a- (without) + Latin moralis from mos (custom, manner)

having no moral principles; dishonest

Latin un- (not) + scrupulosus from scrupulus (small sharp stone, anxiety)

deserving censure or condemnation

Latin reprehensibilis from reprehendere (to hold back, rebuke), from re- (back) + prehendere (to grasp)

deserving strong condemnation; shameful

French déplorable from Latin deplorabilis, from deplorare (to bewail), from de- (intensive) + plorare (to weep)

deserving contempt; despicable

Latin contemptibilis from contemnere (to despise), from con- (intensive) + temnere (to scorn)

deserving hatred and contempt

Latin despicabilis from despicari (to look down on), from de- (down) + specere (to look)

utterly odious or wicked

Old French hainos (hateful) from haine (hatred), of Germanic origin

wicked or criminal

Latin nefarius from nefas (crime, sin), from ne- (not) + fas (divine law)

grossly unfair and morally wrong

Latin iniquus (unjust, unequal), from in- (not) + aequus (equal, just)

morally correct behavior or thinking; righteousness

Latin rectitudo (straightness) from rectus (right, straight), from regere (to guide, rule)

the quality of having strong moral principles; honesty

Latin probitas (goodness, honesty) from probus (good, honest)

the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles

Latin integritas (soundness, wholeness) from integer (whole, complete), from in- (not) + tangere (to touch)

depravity; wickedness

Latin turpitudo (baseness, ugliness) from turpis (ugly, base, shameful)

wrongdoing, especially by a public official

French malfaisance from mal (bad) + faire (to do), from Latin facere

the study of the nature of duty and obligation

Greek deon (duty, that which is binding) + -logia (study of)

a moral theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character

Latin virtus (worth, courage, virtue) + Greek ethikos from ethos (character, custom)

leadership or dominance, especially of one nation over others

Greek hēgemonia (leadership) from hēgemōn (leader), from hēgeisthai (to lead)

supreme power or authority; self-governance

Old French soveraineté from soverain (supreme), from Vulgar Latin superanus, from Latin super (above)

the right or condition of self-government; independence

Greek autonomia from autonomos (self-governing), from autos (self) + nomos (law)

a system of government by one person with absolute power

Greek autokrateia from autokratēs (self-ruling), from autos (self) + kratos (power, rule)

a government in which power is held by a small group

Greek oligarkhia from oligoi (few) + arkhein (to rule)

government by the wealthy; a ruling wealthy class

Greek ploutokratia from ploutos (wealth) + kratos (power, rule)

government or holding of power by people selected based on ability

Latin meritum (deserve, earn) + Greek kratos (power, rule); coined in 1958 by Michael Young

the exercise of absolute power, especially cruelly

Greek despotēs (master, lord) + French -isme (-ism)

cruel and oppressive government or rule

Greek tyrannia (rule of a tyrant) from tyrannos (absolute ruler)

the action of bringing under domination or control

Latin subjugare (bring under the yoke), from sub- (under) + jugum (yoke)

the exercise of control or influence over others

Latin dominatio from dominari (to rule, govern), from dominus (lord, master)

the state of being supreme; highest authority

Latin supremus (highest), superlative of superus (that is above), from super (above)

the official power to make legal decisions and judgments

Latin jurisdictio from jus (law, right) + dicere (to say, declare)

a right or privilege exclusive to a particular person or group

Latin praerogativus (asked first to vote), from prae- (before) + rogare (to ask)

an official order or commission; authority granted by voters

Latin mandatum (command), from mandare (to commit, enjoin), from manus (hand) + dare (to give)

an official order or proclamation issued by a person in authority

Latin edictum (proclamation), from edicere (proclaim), from e- (out) + dicere (to say)

an official order issued by a legal authority

Latin decretum (decision), from decernere (to decide), from de- (from) + cernere (to separate)

an order or principle that must be obeyed

Latin dictare (say often, prescribe), frequentative of dicere (to say)

a formal authorization or decree; an arbitrary order

Latin fiat (let it be done), third person singular present subjunctive of fieri (to become)

to take a position of power illegally or by force

Latin usurpare (to take possession of), from usus (use) + rapere (to seize)

a system of government that is centralized and dictatorial and requires complete subservience

Italian totalitario from totale (total), coined in 1920s to describe fascist regime; from Latin totalis (whole)

a state of disorder due to absence or nonrecognition of authority

Greek anarkhia from anarkhos (without a ruler), from an- (without) + arkhos (ruler)

leadership or dominance, especially by one country over others

Greek hēgemonia leadership, from hēgemōn leader

a system of government by one person with absolute power

Greek autokrateia, from autos self + kratos power

government by the wealthy; a society ruled by the rich

Greek ploutokratia, from ploutos wealth + -kratia rule

a small group of powerful people controlling a country or organization

Greek oligarkhia, from oligos few + arkhein to rule

a system of government based on religious authority

Greek theokratia, from theos god + -kratia rule

government or leadership by people of ability

Latin meritus deserved + Greek -kratia rule, coined 1958

government by technical experts

Greek tekhnē art, skill + -kratia rule, coined early 20th century

absence of government and absolute freedom of the individual

Greek anarkhia without a ruler, from an- without + arkhos ruler

a system of government requiring complete subservience to the state

Italian totalitario, from totale total, coined by Mussolini in 1920s

strict obedience to authority at the expense of personal freedom

Latin auctoritas authority, from auctor originator, promoter

supreme power or authority; self-governance

Old French soveraineté, from Latin superanus chief, from super above

a position of control over a dependent state's foreign affairs

French suzeraineté, from suzerain feudal overlord, from sus up (Latin sursum)

sovereignty or control over a territory

Latin dominium ownership, from dominus lord, master

the official power to make legal decisions

Latin iurisdictio, from ius law + dicere to say

the right or condition of self-government

Greek autonomia, from autos self + nomos law

ruling or dominant in a political or social context

Greek hēgemonia leadership, from hēgemōn leader

an area over which a person has complete control

Medieval Latin feodum feudal estate, from Frankish fehu cattle, property

a kingdom; a field or domain of activity

Old French reaume, from Latin regimen rule, from regere to rule

the scope of influence or concern

Anglo-Norman purveu foreseen, provided, from Latin providere to foresee

the protection, backing, or support of a powerful person or organization

Greek aigis shield of Zeus, possibly from aix goat (shield made of goatskin)

to bring under domination or control; conquer

Latin subiugare, from sub under + iugum yoke

to keep in subservience and hardship

Latin oppressare, from ob against + premere to press

cruel and oppressive government or rule

Greek tyrannia rule of a tyrant, from tyrannos absolute ruler

the exercise of absolute power, especially cruelly

Greek despotēs master, lord, from des- house + -potēs master

the action of subjugating or state of being subjugated

Latin subiectio, from sub under + iacere to throw

the state of being a slave or completely subject to another

Latin servitudo slavery, from servus slave

to set free from legal, social, or political restrictions

Latin emancipare, from ex- out + mancipare transfer ownership, from manus hand + capere take

to give the right to vote; to set free

Old French enfranchir, from en- in + franc free

a violent uprising against an authority

Latin insurrectio, from insurgere rise up, from in- into + surgere to rise

conduct or speech inciting people to rebel against authority

Latin seditio discord, mutiny, from sed- apart + itio going

to undermine the power and authority of an established system

Latin subvertere overturn, from sub from below + vertere to turn

to take a position of power illegally or by force

Latin usurpare seize for use, from usu by use + rapere to seize

the power to influence a situation or person

French levier a lever, from lever to raise, from Latin levare to lift

influence or power, especially in politics or business

Old English clūt piece of cloth, patch, later a blow, possibly from striking power

influence or control over others

Middle Low German swājen to swing, move to and fro

occupation of a position of dominant power or influence

Latin ascendere to climb up, from ad- to + scandere to climb

an exclusive right or privilege

Latin praerogativa asked first, from prae before + rogare to ask

the authority to carry out a policy, granted by the electorate

Latin mandatum command, from mandare to order, from manus hand + dare to give

official permission or approval; a penalty for disobedience

Latin sanctio decree, from sancire to ratify, from sacer sacred

a constitutional right to reject a decision

Latin veto I forbid, from vetare to forbid

a formal authorization or decree

Latin fiat let it be done, from fieri to become, be made

an official order or proclamation

Latin edictum proclamation, from edicere proclaim, from e- out + dicere to say

an official order issued by a legal authority

Latin decretum decision, from decernere to decide, from de- completely + cernere to separate

an order imposed by someone in power without popular consent

German Diktat dictation, dictated terms, from Latin dictatum thing dictated

to make something bad or unsatisfactory better

Latin meliorare to make better from melior better

to make a problem, bad situation, or negative feeling worse

Latin exacerbare to irritate, provoke from ex- thoroughly + acerbus harsh, bitter

to make less severe, serious, or painful

Latin mitigare to make mild or gentle from mitis mild + agere make

to render obscure, unclear, or unintelligible

Latin obfuscare to darken from ob- over + fuscare to make dark from fuscus dark

to make something clear; to explain

Latin elucidare to make clear from e- out + lucidus light, clear from lux light

to free someone or something from a constraint or difficulty

Latin extricare to disentangle from ex- out + tricae perplexities, hindrances

to criticize someone severely; to damage the skin

Latin excoriare to strip the hide from from ex- out, off + corium skin, hide

to reprimand someone severely

Latin castigare to correct, punish from castus pure, chaste + agere to drive

to warn or reprimand someone firmly

Latin admonere to remind, warn from ad- to + monere to warn

to scold or criticize someone angrily

be- (intensive prefix) + rate to scold from Middle English raten

to speak or write about in an abusively disparaging manner

Latin vilificare to make worthless from vilis cheap, worthless + facere to make

to criticize unfairly; to disparage

Latin denigrare to blacken from de- completely + nigrare to make black from niger black

to regard or represent as being of little worth

Old French desparagier marry someone of unequal rank from des- away + parage equality of rank

to regard with great respect; to revere

Latin venerari to worship, revere from venus love, charm

to think deeply about something; to chew cud

Latin ruminare to chew over again from rumen throat, gullet

to think deeply about something; to ponder

Latin cogitare to think, consider from co- together + agitare to turn over in the mind

to engage in long and careful consideration

Latin deliberare to consider carefully from de- completely + librare to weigh from libra balance, scales

to waver between different opinions or actions

Latin vacillare to sway, waver from vacuus empty

to move or swing back and forth; to vary between extremes

Latin oscillare to swing from oscillum little face, little mask (which was hung on trees to swing in the wind)

to rise and fall irregularly in number or amount

Latin fluctuare to wave, undulate from fluctus wave, flow from fluere to flow

to be clear or obvious to the eye or mind; to display or show

Latin manifestus clear, evident from manus hand + -festus struck

to be a perfect example of a particular quality or type

Greek epitome abridgment from epi upon + temnein to cut

a deep, pensive sadness

Greek melancholia from melas black + khole bile (from ancient medical theory of four humors)

a feeling of listlessness and dissatisfaction arising from boredom

French ennui annoyance, vexation from Latin in odio in hatred, hateful to

a general feeling of discomfort, uneasiness, or illness

French malaise from mal bad + aise ease, comfort

the state of physical or mental weariness; lack of energy

Latin languor faintness, weariness from languere to be faint or weak

a lack of energy and enthusiasm

Greek lethargia from lethe forgetfulness + argos idle

a state of physical or mental inactivity; lethargy

Latin torpor numbness, sluggishness from torpere to be numb or sluggish

lack of interest, enthusiasm, or concern

Greek apatheia without feeling from a- without + pathos feeling, suffering

lack of interest, concern, or sympathy

Latin indifferentia from in- not + differentia difference

a feeling of intense excitement and happiness

Greek euphoria power of enduring easily from eu well + pherein to bear

great happiness and exhilaration

Latin elatio exaltation from elatus raised up from efferre to carry out, lift up

a feeling of intense pleasure or joy

Latin raptura a carrying off from rapere to seize, carry off

an overwhelming feeling of great happiness or joy

Greek ekstasis standing outside oneself from ex out + histanai to place, cause to stand

perfect happiness; great joy

Old English bliths joy, merriment from Proto-Germanic blithiz gentle, kind

the state of being calm, peaceful, and untroubled

Latin serenitas clearness, tranquility from serenus clear, calm

the quality or state of being calm and peaceful

Latin tranquillitas calmness, stillness from tranquillus quiet, calm

a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease

Latin anxietas anguish, distress from anxius troubled, uneasy from angere to choke, squeeze

a feeling of fear or agitation about something

Latin trepidatio agitation, alarm from trepidare to tremble, be anxious

feelings of anxiety or dismay, typically at something unexpected

Latin consternatio dismay, confusion from consternare to throw into confusion from con- together + sternere to lay low

anxiety; mental uneasiness; a disturbance

Latin perturbatio confusion, disorder from perturbare to disturb greatly from per- thoroughly + turbare to disturb

the state of having mixed feelings about something

German Ambivalenz from Latin ambi- both + valentia strength (coined by psychologist Eugen Bleuler in 1910)

a sentimental longing for the past

Greek nostos homecoming + algos pain, ache (coined as a medical term in 1688 for homesickness)

having or showing a feeling of vague or regretful longing

From obsolete wistly intently (influenced by wishful), possibly from Old English wiste intently

impressive through richness or color; dazzling

Latin resplendere to shine brightly from re- back, again + splendere to shine

shining brightly; radiant

Latin effulgere to shine out from ex- out + fulgere to shine

full of or shedding light; bright or shining

Latin luminosus full of light from lumen light

having luster; shining

Latin lustrare to make bright, illuminate from lustrum purification

showing luminous colors that seem to change when seen from different angles

Latin iris rainbow + -escent becoming (from Greek goddess Iris, personification of the rainbow)

ostentatiously rich and luxurious

Latin opulentus wealthy, rich from ops wealth, resources, power

splendid and expensive-looking

Latin sumptuosus costly, expensive from sumptus expense from sumere to take, spend

made or decorated in an elaborate way

Latin ornatus adorned, decorated from ornare to adorn

extravagantly bright or showy in a tasteless way

Possibly from Middle English gaude trick, ornament or from Latin gaudium joy

obtrusively bright and showy; lurid

Origin uncertain, possibly from obsolete gaure to stare or related to garish to garnish

characterized by vulgar or pretentious display

Latin ostentare to display, show off (frequentative of ostendere to show) from ob- before + tendere to stretch

severe or strict in appearance; having no comforts

Greek austeros harsh, severe, bitter (originally referring to taste, making the tongue dry)

showing no interest in comfort or luxury; simple and severe

From Sparta, ancient Greek city known for military discipline and austerity

in its original condition; unspoiled; immaculately clean

Latin pristinus former, ancient, original from priscus ancient

perfectly clean, neat, or tidy

Latin immaculatus unstained, spotless from in- not + maculatus spotted from macula spot, stain

untidy; messy

Old French descheveler to disarrange the hair from des- apart + chevel hair from Latin capillus hair

having an untidy or messy appearance

un- not + kempt (past participle of obsolete kemb to comb) from Old English cemban

looking exhausted and unwell, especially from fatigue or suffering

Old French hagard wild, untamed (originally referring to a wild hawk)

having a yellowish or pale brown complexion, suggesting poor health

Old English salo dusky, dark from Proto-Germanic salwaz

pale, typically because of poor health or fear

Latin pallidus pale from pallere to be pale

comically or repulsively ugly or distorted

French grotesque from Italian grottesca cave painting (from grotta cave), referring to Roman decorative art found in ruins

characterized by extreme spareness and simplicity

From minimal (Latin minimus smallest) + -ist (coined in 1960s for art movement)

lasting for a very short time

Greek ephemeros lasting only a day from epi upon + hemera day

lasting only for a short time; impermanent

Latin transire to go across, pass from trans- across + ire to go

lasting for a very short time

Old English fleotan to float, drift from Proto-Germanic fleutanan

soon passing out of sight, memory, or existence

Latin evanescere to vanish from e- out + vanescere to vanish from vanus empty

lasting for a very short time; brief

Latin momentum movement, moving power, moment from movere to move

never ending or changing; occurring repeatedly

Latin perpetualis continuous from perpetuus continuous, universal from per- through + petere to go to, seek

lasting for an indefinite time; enduring

Latin perennis lasting through the year from per- through + annus year

unchanging over time or unable to be changed

Latin immutabilis unchangeable from in- not + mutabilis changeable from mutare to change

making marks that cannot be removed; unforgettable

Latin indelibilis from in- not + delere to delete, destroy

unable to be erased or forgotten

French ineffaçable from in- not + effacer to erase from Latin ex- out + facies face, form

a trace of something that is disappearing or no longer exists

French vestige from Latin vestigium footprint, trace

a small remaining quantity; a surviving trace

Old French remanant remaining from Latin remanere to remain from re- back + manere to stay

an object surviving from an earlier time; something outdated

Latin reliquiae remains from relinquere to leave behind from re- back + linquere to leave

old-fashioned or outdated

Latin antiquatus made old from antiquare to make old from antiquus ancient from ante before

very old or old-fashioned

Greek arkhaikos old-fashioned from arkhaios ancient from arkhe beginning

just beginning to develop; emerging

Latin nascens being born from nasci to be born

in an initial stage; beginning to develop

Latin incipiens beginning from incipere to begin from in- in, on + capere to take

in a rudimentary stage with potential for development

Greek embruon young one from en in + bruein to swell, grow

beginning to grow or increase rapidly

Old French burjon bud, shoot possibly from Latin burra wool, fluff

no longer produced or used; out of date

Latin obsoletus worn out, gone out of use from obsolescere to fall into disuse from ob- away + solere to be accustomed

lasting or existing forever; without end or beginning

Latin aeternalis eternal from aeternus eternal from aevum age, lifetime

existing or occurring at the same time

Greek sunkhronos contemporaneous from sun- together + khronos time

of outstanding spiritual or artistic worth; awe-inspiring

Latin sublimis uplifted, high, lofty

extremely delicate and light; heavenly

Latin aether from Greek aithēr upper air, heaven

extremely beautiful and delicate

Latin exquisitus carefully sought out, from exquirere search out

impressive in appearance; dazzling

Latin resplendere shine brightly, from re- again + splendere to shine

surpassing the ordinary; exceptional

Latin transcendere climb over, from trans- across + scandere to climb

bright or shining; full of light

Latin luminosus, from lumen light