20 Logical Fallacies With ExamplesHow to spot weak arguments fast
Logical fallacies are reasoning shortcuts that make an argument sound persuasive while quietly breaking the link between evidence and conclusion.
Naming a fallacy is not enough. The useful question is: what exactly failed? Did the speaker attack the person, limit the options, assume the conclusion, change the subject, or confuse sequence with cause?
ad hominem
attacking the person instead of the argument
Example: You cannot trust her budget proposal; she dresses badly.
straw man
misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack
Example: She wants cleaner energy, so she must want everyone to stop driving tomorrow.
false dichotomy
presenting only two options when more exist
Example: Either we launch this week or the company fails.
red herring
diverting attention with an irrelevant issue
Example: Asked about missed deadlines, he discussed how hard the team worked.
slippery slope
claiming one step will inevitably lead to extreme consequences
Example: If we allow remote Fridays, soon nobody will ever come to the office.
circular reasoning
using the conclusion as support for itself
Example: This policy is effective because it works.
begging the question
assuming what the argument needs to prove
Example: The plan is trustworthy because only trustworthy plans pass our process.
hasty generalization
drawing a broad conclusion from too little evidence
Example: Two customers complained, so the entire product is broken.
appeal to authority
using authority as proof when expertise is missing or irrelevant
Example: A famous actor likes this supplement, so it must be safe.
appeal to emotion
using emotion instead of evidence
Example: Rejecting this proposal means you do not care about the team.
appeal to tradition
arguing something is right because it is old
Example: We should keep the process because we have always done it this way.
appeal to nature
claiming something is good because it is natural
Example: This remedy is natural, so it cannot be harmful.
tu quoque
deflecting criticism by accusing the critic
Example: You missed a deadline last month, so you cannot question mine.
loaded question
asking a question that hides an assumption
Example: When did you stop ignoring customer feedback?
equivocation
switching meanings of a word inside an argument
Example: The policy is fair because everyone has a fair chance to complain.
composition fallacy
assuming the whole has the same property as its parts
Example: Every feature is simple, so the whole product must be simple.
division fallacy
assuming each part has the property of the whole
Example: The company is profitable, so every team must be profitable.
post hoc fallacy
assuming that because B followed A, A caused B
Example: We changed the logo, then sales rose, so the logo caused the growth.
no true Scotsman
protecting a claim by redefining the category
Example: No real expert would disagree with me.
fallacy fallacy
assuming a conclusion is false because the argument for it was flawed
Example: His argument was bad, so the conclusion must be wrong.
Practice fallacy recognition
Learn the names, definitions, and examples so you can identify flawed arguments without overcalling them.
Study logical fallacies